Abstract
Positive emotional appeals, such as pride appeals, have not received much attention in research on green advertising. In the current research, results from two experiments reveal compatibility effects between an authentic, versus hubristic, pride appeal and proximal, versus distal, temporal message frame. Study 1 demonstrates these effects in the context of an advertisement for a green product, while Study 2 demonstrates these effects in the context of a public service announcement (PSA) promoting green behaviors. Additionally, processing fluency mediated the interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message frame.
MANAGEMENT SLANT
Advertisements for products and services as well as public service announcements (PSAs) should include pride appeals to effectively persuade consumers.
Advertisements and PSAs that feature products, services, or convey risk of a certain behavior in the near future (proximal temporal message frame) should feature authentic pride appeals to enhance persuasion.
Advertisements and PSAs that feature products, services, or convey risk of a certain behavior in the distant future (distal temporal message frame) should feature hubristic pride appeals to enhance persuasion.
As incidental or context-based emotions influence consumer reactions to advertising messages, advertisers should be mindful of selecting a media vehicle or timing that emotionally matches temporal message framing.
INTRODUCTION
Green advertising is more important now than ever (e.g., Chang, Lee, and Lee, 2022; Ganz and Grimes, 2018; Lee, Chang, and Chen, 2017; Sheehan and Atkinson, 2012) and it is necessary to identify effective message strategies to persuade consumers to purchase green products and engage in environmentally friendly behaviors. Prior work in social marketing has examined different types of message strategies, with some emphasis on negative emotional appeals, such as fear, guilt, and shame (e.g., Baek and Yoon, 2017; Duhachek, Agrawal, and Han, 2012; Lee et al., 2017; Pounders, Lee, and Mackert, 2015). But positive emotional appeals, such as pride appeals, have not received as much attention in the literature, despite being considered a prosocial emotion. Pride is a self-conscious emotion and is an important motivator of human behavior as it is inherently related to social and moral standards (Tangney, Stuewig, and Mashek, 2007). Some work suggests that the feeling of pride is necessary for individuals to engage in selfless acts (Hardy and Van Vugt, 2006). A positive association between pride appeals and pro-social behavior also has been established in prior literature (Baek and Yoon, 2022; Hong, Lim, and Atkinson, 2021; Koenig-Lewis, Palmer, Dermody, and Urbye, 2014; Rowe, Dimitru, Charnley, and Lastrucci, 2019). Accordingly, pride is an especially important emotion to examine in green advertising.
There are two subtypes of pride: authentic pride and hubristic pride (Tracy and Robins, 2007a). Authentic pride is elicited when one feels proud of his or her behaviors or actions, while hubristic pride is elicited when a person feels being proud of his or her global self or integral characteristics and traits (Tracy and Robins 2007a). For example, a consumer may experience authentic pride because they are proud of their green behavior. On the other hand, a consumer may experience hubristic pride due to their identity as a green consumer. Authentic pride is activated by behavior-specific appraisals, such as “I got an A on the exam because I studied hard,” while hubristic pride is activated by global self-appraisals, such as: “I got an A on the exam because I am intelligent” (Tracy and Robins, 2007b). Although there is sufficient evidence for the divergent characteristics of the two types of pride (e.g., Tangney et al., 2007; Tracy and Robins, 2007b), little research has explored the effectiveness of these two types of pride appeals in advertising.
In addition to emotional appeals, many social marketing campaigns use temporal framing, which highlights the occurrence of consequences of a recommended behavior or event in either near-distant (proximal) or future-distant (distal) frames (e.g., Chandran and Menon, 2004; Pounders, Royne, and Lee, 2019). For example, in the context of green advertising, the consequences of unsustainable behavior could be conveyed using a proximal temporal frame, such as “every day,” or a distal temporal frame, such as “every year.” Prior research suggests the effectiveness of temporal framing can vary based on other message elements featured in the advertisement effects (Huang and Xu, 2022) and has identified compatibility effects to temporal framing (Pounders et al., 2019; Shen and Kim, 2022). Compatibility effects occur when different message elements featured together (e.g., emotional appeals, gain or loss frames) elicit consistent information processing, enabling individuals to easily process the message, ultimately resulting in favorable persuasive outcomes (Aaker and Lee, 2001; Cesario, Grant, and Higgins, 2004; Teeny, Siev, Brinol, and Petty, 2020).
Interestingly, prior work suggests that there may be a compatibility effect between the two types of pride and temporal framing. Specifically, consumers who experience authentic pride process information concretely, focusing on the specific details of a situation or event, while consumers who experience hubristic pride process information abstractly, focusing on the “big picture” aspect of a situation or event (Yang and Zhang, 2018). Further, information presented in a proximal frame is processed concretely, while information presented in a distal frame is processed abstractly (Chandran and Menon, 2004). Accordingly, this work investigates the potential compatibility effects between authentic and hubristic pride appeals and temporal message framing. The authors predict that a match between an authentic (hubristic) pride appeal and a proximal (distal) temporal message frame will produce positive persuasive outcomes. They also predict that processing fluency will mediate the interaction between pride appeals and temporal framing on behavioral intention.
Although there is sufficient evidence for the divergent characteristics of the two types of pride, little research has explored the effectiveness of these two types of pride appeals in advertising.
These predictions are examined in two experiments in the context of green advertising. Study 1 uses an emotion-priming advertisement before presenting an advertisement for a green product (environmentally friendly soap), while Study 2 uses a more traditional approach by presenting pride appeals and a temporal message frame within a single public service announcement (PSA) promoting green behavior. This work offers theoretical contributions and practical implications for advertisers.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Pride is a positive, self-conscious emotion that has been defined as “a feeling of satisfaction, delight, or pleasure in something one has achieved and/or one is able to do” (Decrop and Derbaix, 2010, p. 587), as well as a feeling of personal responsibility for achieving a valued positive outcome (Cavanaugh, Bettman, and Luce, 2015). Pride is also described as a psychological force that motivates individuals to act in altruistic ways due to enhanced social status (Tracy and Robins, 2007a; Hardy and Van Vugt, 2006). The feelings of achievement associated with pride are internally attributed and are often associated with morally correct and/or socially acceptable behaviors and traits (Tangney et al., 2007). This is, in part, due to the motivating characteristic of pride (Tracy and Robins, 2007a). Pride enhances motivation and activates self-esteem, positively influencing prosocial behaviors (Baek and Yoon, 2022; Hong et al., 2021; Tracy and Robins, 2007a). When pride is elicited from engaging in prosocial behaviors, individuals experience positive feelings about the self and are motivated to participate in future prosocial behaviors (Hart and Matsuba, 2007; Herrald and Tomaka, 2002; Ladhari and Tchetgna, 2017). Pride also motivates individuals to persevere to achieve long-term goals, even if they need to face short-term displeasure (Williams and DeSteno, 2008).
A low construal level refers to construing an event in greater detail, while a high construal level refers to construing an event abstractly.
There are two sub-types of pride: authentic pride and hubristic pride (Tracy and Robins, 2007a). Authentic pride is associated with a sense of accomplishment regarding one’s specific behaviors (Tracy and Robins, 2007a) and is elicited when individuals feel pride due to their hard work and achievements (Verbeke, Belschak, and Bagozzi, 2004). Hubristic pride is ego-driven, is associated with how one perceives the global self (Tracy and Robins, 2007a), and is elicited when individuals feel pride due to individual traits and innate abilities (Laros and Steenkamp, 2005). An individual will experience authentic pride when a sports success is attributed to hard work and practice, for example, whereas an individual will experience hubristic pride when a sports success is attributed to one’s innate athletic ability and skill. In sum, authentic pride is elicited by an assessment of one’s actions and behaviors and is empirically clustered with words such as “accomplished,” while hubristic pride is ego-driven, elicited by an assessment of one’s innate traits and abilities, and is empirically clustered with words such as “egotistic” (Tracy and Robins, 2007b).
Construal Level Theory and Temporal Message Frames
The psychological distance between the present and a future event influences individuals’ evaluations and decision making about that event (Trope, Liberman, and Wakslak, 2008). Construal level theory explains the impact of psychological distance on individuals’ thoughts and behaviors (Trope et al., 2008). According to construal level theory, individuals experience a low construal level for near-future or proximal events and a high construal level for distant-future or distal events (Liberman and Trope, 1998; Trope et al., 2008). A low construal level refers to construing an event in greater detail, while a high construal level refers to construing an event abstractly (Trope et al., 2008). In other words, individuals process a proximal (near-future) event more concretely, using more detailed information about specific aspects of an event, while individuals process a distal (distant-future) event more abstractly, focusing on the primary characteristic or “big picture” aspect of an event. When people were asked to depict an event of “moving into a new apartment,” for example, those who were in distal condition described the event as “starting a new life” (Liberman and Trope, 1998). By contrast, those in the proximal condition described it as “packing and carrying boxes” (Liberman and Trope, 1998). In sum, people are likely to process proximal (near-future) events with concrete information and distal (distant-future) events with abstract information.
Temporal framing is a messaging strategy that highlights the occurrence of the consequences of a recommended behavior in proximal versus distal temporal distance. The use of temporal framing in social marketing is increasingly prevalent (Huang and Wu, 2022). Much of this work has found that proximal temporal frames are more effective (compared to distal temporal frames) (Huang and Wu, 2022). In a health context, for example, previous researchers demonstrated proximal temporal frames make risks appear more proximal and concrete compared to distal temporal frames, resulting in increased self-risk perceptions, intentions to exercise precautionary behavior, and effectiveness of health communication (Chandran and Menon, 2004). Another study also demonstrated that individuals who are less future oriented were more persuaded by the advertisement and reported stronger intentions to engage in preventive behaviors when the message is framed in more proximal (versus distal) terms, while individuals who are more future oriented reported similar perceptions of persuasiveness and behavioral intentions across both temporal message frame conditions (Kees, 2010). But other work has found that the effectiveness of temporal framing can vary depending on message factors, such as gain versus loss frame (Mollen, Engelen, Kessels, and van der Putte, 2017) and narrative versus non-narrative message (Kim and Nan, 2019), as well as individual trait differences (Kees, 2010; Kim and Nan, 2019; Zhao, Nan, Iles, and Yang, 2015).
Compatibility between Pride Appeals and Temporal Message Frames
Other researchers have predicted a compatibility effect between pride appeal type and temporal message frame. Prior work based on construal level theory demonstrates proximal (distal) temporal message frames are construed more concretely (abstractly) (Chandran and Menon, 2004). One group of researchers demonstrated that individuals who feel authentic pride process a message more concretely or proximally, whereas individuals who feel hubristic pride process a message more abstractly or distally (Yang and Zhang, 2018). Another study, based on the regulatory focus theory and construal theory, identified a compatibility effect for a promotion-focused (prevention-focused) message paired with a hubristic (authentic) pride appeal (Hong et al., 2021) because a promotion-focus message, which focuses on attaining positive consequences, is associated with high construal level, and a prevention-focus message, which focuses on avoiding negative consequences, is associated with low construal level (Lee, Keller, and Sternthal, 2010).
After viewing the PSA with the manipulated pride appeal, participants were randomly exposed to one of two advertisements about an eco-friendly soap with a fictitious brand.
In sum, the current authors expected a compatibility effect between pride appeal type and temporal message frame due to congruent message processing. Specifically, they expected consumers exposed to an authentic pride appeal featuring a proximal temporal message frame, which both activate a low construal level, would report more favorable persuasion outcomes in the form of purchase intention and intention to spread positive word of mouth, compared to those exposed to authentic pride appeal paired with a distal frame. By contrast, the current authors expected consumers exposed to hubristic pride appeal featuring a distal temporal message frame, which both activate a high construal level, would report more positive persuasion outcomes (compared to those exposed to hubristic pride appeal with a proximal frame). Thus:
H1: An authentic pride appeal will elicit greater (a) purchase intention and (b) intention to spread positive word of mouth when matched with a proximal temporal message frame.
H2: A hubristic pride appeal will elicit greater (a) purchase intention and (b) intention to spread positive word of mouth when matched with a distal temporal message frame.
STUDY 1
Study 1 was an online experiment survey to examine the interaction effect between pride appeal type and temporal message frame in the context of a green advertisement. To test the hypotheses, a 2 (pride appeal: authentic pride versus hubristic pride) × 2 (temporal message frame: proximal versus distal) between-subjects experiment was conducted. A total of 200 participants were recruited using Prolific, but 16 participants were excluded for failing the attention check question (participants were asked to choose “disagree” as an answer), leaving a total of 184 participants (27 percent male and 70.3 percent females, with a mean age of 35.17). The majority were White (67 percent), followed by African American (16.8 percent), Other (8.6 percent), and Asian (7.0 percent). A total of 46.5 percent, have a bachelor’s degree, followed by some college (22.2 percent), high school (18.9 percent), and a graduate degree (11.9 percent) (categories with very small numbers of respondents have been omitted).
Stimuli and Procedure
Study 1 adopted an emotion-priming procedure in which participants were primed with an emotion by being exposed to an ostensibly related advertisement. Participants were first exposed to a PSA about sustainable living that featured an authentic or hubristic pride appeal. Consistent with previous studies, the authors manipulated the pride appeal type through the advertising copy in the PSA (e.g., Baek and Yoon, 2017; Hong et al., 2021). The headline of the PSA for authentic pride stated, “Be proud of what you do,” while the headline of the PSA for hubristic pride stated, “Be proud of who you are.” Additionally, each PSA also featured distinct advertising copy based on the characteristics of each subtype of pride (See Appendix A).
After viewing the PSA with the manipulated pride appeal, participants were randomly exposed to one of two advertisements about an eco-friendly soap with a fictitious brand “Green Clean” that contained the temporal message frame manipulation. Consistent with prior work, the proximal frame advertisement featured phrases such as “every day,” “today’s environment,” and “at this moment,” while the distal frame advertisements featured phrases such as “every year,” “the future environment,” and “in the next decade” (Chandran and Menon, 2004; Pounders et al., 2019) (See Appendix A). Participants were then asked to answer questions about their purchase intention, intention to spread positive word of mouth, participants’ past experiences of using eco-friendly soap, and demographic information.
Measures
To assess the manipulation of pride appeal, participants were asked to rate the extent to which they felt in the following ways: The advertisement makes me feel “pleased about what I do/pleased about who I am,” “proud of my efforts/proud of my image and identity,” and “proud of what I achieve/proud of how I look” (1 = “never” and 7 = “extremely”) (Hong et al., 2021; Tracy and Robins, 2007a) (α = .91).
To assess the manipulation of the temporal message frame, participants were asked to rate the extent to which they think about the promptness of the copy of the advertisement: “now/later,” “today/sometime over the year,” “near future/distant future” (7-point bipolar scale) (Chandran and Menon, 2004) (α = .94).
To assess purchase intention, participants were asked to rate, on a scale from 1 to 7, the extent to which they would like to purchase the product featured in the advertisement: “never/definitely,” “definitely do not intend to buy/definitely intend to buy,” “very low purchase interest/very high purchase interest,” “probably not buy it/ probably buy it” (Spears and Singh, 2004) (α = .96).
To assess intention to spread positive word of mouth, participants were asked to rate, on a scale from 1 to 7, the extent to which they agree with the following statements: “I will talk to many people about the product,” “I will provide as many details as I can about the product,” “I have good things to say about the product,” and “I will recommend that others buy the product” (Cheema and Kaikati, 2010) (α = .89).
As a control variable, participants were also asked to rate how often they used an environmentally friendly soap in the past 30 days. Controlling for an individual’s prior behavior can provide more accurate results, as the covariate reduces the error term by correcting for a variable that affects the dependent variable (Meyvis and Osselaer, 2018). Prior work has shown that past purchase experience tends to influence current purchase intention either in a positive way if the consumers had a good experience or in a negative way if they had a bad experience (Kim and Chung, 2011; Jun, 2020).
Results
Manipulation Checks. The manipulation check for the pride appeal type was successful. Participants who viewed an authentic pride appeal experienced greater authentic pride [M = 5.52, SD = 1.41; F(1,183) = 12.83, p < .001] than hubristic pride (M = 4.84, SD = 1.16). Participants who viewed the hubristic pride appeal (M = 4.46, SD = 1.18) felt greater hubristic pride than authentic pride [M = 3.84, SD = 1.45; F(1, 183) = 10.00, p = .002].
The manipulation check for temporal message framing was also successful [F(1, 183) = 10.96, p = .001]. Participants in the proximal temporal message frame condition (M = 1.99, SD = 1.37) elicited a greater degree of proximity than those in the distal temporal message framing condition (M = 3.11, SD = 1.74).
Hypotheses Testing. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) using past experience of using eco-friendly soap as a covariate [F(1, 180) = 17.39, p < .001] was conducted to test H1a and H2a.
The results demonstrated a significant interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message framing on purchase intention [F(1, 180) = 5.66, p < .018, η2 = .03]. Specifically, participants who were primed with the authentic pride appeal had greater purchase intention when they viewed a proximal temporal message frame advertisement (M = 6.23, SD = 1.25) compared to a distal temporal message frame advertisement [M = 5.87, SD = 1.52; F(1,180) = 4.10, p = .04, η2 = .02]. Participants who were primed with the hubristic pride appeal had greater purchase intention when they viewed a distal temporal message frame advertisement (M = 6.36, SD = 1.13) compared to a proximal temporal message frame advertisement (M = 6.02, SD = 1.43). But although the means were consistent with the predicted direction, the comparison tests revealed the mean difference was not significant [F(1,180) = 1.86, p = .17, η2 = .01]. Accordingly, H1a is supported and H2a is not supported.
An ANCOVA using past experience of using eco-friendly soap as a covariate [F(1, 180) = 13.23, p < .001] was conducted to assess H1b and H2b. Findings revealed a significant interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message framing on intention to spread positive word of mouth [F(1,180) = 7.61, p = .006, η2 = .04]. Specifically, participants who were primed with the authentic pride appeal PSA had greater intention to spread word of mouth when they viewed an advertisement with proximal temporal message framing (M = 4.55, SD = 1.08) compared to the advertisement with distal temporal message framing [M = 4.24, SD = 1.27; F(1,180) = 3.78, p = .05, η2 = .02]. Additionally, participants who were primed with the hubristic pride appeal had greater intention to spread positive word of mouth when they viewed an advertisement with distal temporal message framing (M = 4.78, SD = 1.0) compared to those who viewed the advertisement with proximal temporal message framing [M = 4.32, SD = 1.32; F(1,180) = 3.89, p = .05, η2 = .02)] H1b and H2b were supported (See Figures 1 and 2).
Study 1 Discussion
Study 1 investigated and revealed compatibility effects between authentic (hubristic) pride appeals and proximal (distal) temporal message framing. Specifically, individuals who were primed with an authentic pride appeal had greater purchase intention and were more likely to spread positive word of mouth when they viewed an advertisement for a green product featuring a proximal temporal message frame (compared to a distal frame). Additionally, those who were primed with hubristic pride appeal had a greater intention to spread positive word of mouth when they viewed an advertisement for a green product featuring a distal temporal message frame (compared to a proximal frame). These findings suggest that advertisers and social marketers should feature a proximal (distal) temporal framing when using an authentic (hubristic) pride appeal about a product, service, or social cause. Study 2 investigated these suggestions by examining authentic and hubristic pride appeals and temporal message framing within a single PSA (as opposed to two different stimuli) and examined processing fluency as the potential underlying mechanism of these effects.
STUDY 2
Study 2 had three objectives. The first is to increase generalizability by replicating findings from Study 1 by examining authentic and hubristic pride appeals in a PSA promoting green behavior (rather than an advertisement for a green product). The second was to use a more conventional approach by presenting both pride appeals and temporal message frames within a single PSA. The third objective was to examine processing fluency as a potential underlying psychological mechanism to the interaction effects between pride appeal type and temporal framing on behavioral intention.
Processing fluency refers to “the ease or difficulty with which information can be processed” (Schwarz, 2004, p. 393). When consumers view a message that is structured with message elements that elicit a consistent cognitive process, they “feel right” about the message (Cesario et al., 2004). Consequently, such feeling enables consumers to process the message fluently and enhance conceptual fluency, which refers to the ease of cognitive processing of the assigned message (Cesario et al., 2004; Graf, Mayer, and Landwehr, 2017). The authors therefore expected enhanced fluency for an authentic (hubristic) pride appeal paired with a proximal (distal) temporal frame due to consistent cognitive processing. They expected that the interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message frame would indirectly influence participants’ behavioral intention through processing fluency. Thus:
H3: Processing fluency will mediate the interaction effect between pride appeal type and temporal message frame on intention to engage in the green behavior.
Method
Study 2 consisted of a two (pride appeal type: authentic pride versus hubristic pride) × two (temporal message frame: proximal versus distal) between-participants experiment. A total of 200 participants were recruited from Prolific and were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions, but five participants who failed the attention check were excluded. Among the participants 56.9 percent were male and 41 percent were female, with a mean age of 34.62. The majority were White (78.5 percent, n = 153), followed by Asian (8.2 percent, n = 16), African American (7.2 percent, n = 14) and Other (2.6 percent, n = 5). The majority of participants held a bachelor’s degree (42.1 percent, n = 82), followed by some college (31.3 percent, n = 61), a graduate degree (13.8 percent, n = 27), and high school (12.3 percent, n = 24) (categories with a very small number of respondents have been omitted).
Stimuli
Study 2 used a PSA to promote the reduction of using plastic bags for a fictitious nonprofit organization called “For Green and For You.” The manipulations for the pride appeal type were consistent with Study 1. For the authentic pride appeal condition, the headline was: “What you do makes a difference in today’s/the future environment,” and below the headline, there was a description of what and how consumers’ actions can help the environment. For the hubristic pride appeal condition, the headline was: “Who you are makes a difference in today’s/the future environment,” and below the headline there was a description of one’s identity as a green consumer. Consistent with Study 1, the temporal message frame was manipulated by stating how consumers can help today’s environment versus the future environment (See Appendix B).
Procedures
After participants completed the informed consent form, they were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions and asked to complete an online survey with the manipulation checks, dependent variables, covariate measure (prior experience with recyclable grocery bags), and demographic information.
The manipulation checks and covariate were the same as in Study 1. To assess behavioral intention, participants were asked to indicate to what extent they agree with the following statements: “I would reduce using plastic bags,” and “I will use environmentally friendly bags when I go to the store” (1 = “strongly disagree”; 7 = “strongly agree”) (α = .89) (Spears and Singh, 2004). Participants’ perceptual fluency was measured by a 7-point bipolar scale: “uncomprehensive/comprehensive,” “unclear/clear,” “difficult/easy to understand,” “difficult/not difficult to process,” and “illogical/logical) (α = .91) (Aaker and Lee, 2004).
Results
Manipulation Check. Participants who viewed the authentic pride appeal (M = 4.50, SD = 1.31) felt greater authentic pride than hubristic pride (M = 3.91, SD = 1.23; F(1,194) = 10.77, p < .001). Participants who viewed the hubristic pride appeal also felt greater hubristic pride (M = 4.00, SD = 1.32) than authentic pride (M = 3.56, SD = 1.18; F(1,194) = 5.83, p = .017). Thus, the pride appeal manipulation was successful.
Participants in the proximal framing condition (M = 4.29, SD = 1.73) perceived a greater degree of proximity than those in the distal framing condition (M = 5.10, SD = 1.28; F(1,194) = 11.20, p = .001). The manipulation check for pride appeal was also successful.
Hypotheses Testing. Prior experience with non-plastic shopping bags did not have an impact on the dependent variables and thus was not used in the analysis. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test H1 and H2. The results demonstrated a significant interaction effect between pride appeal type and temporal message frame [F(1, 191) = 13.42, p < .001, η2 = .07]. Participants who viewed an authentic pride appeal with a proximal temporal frame (M = 5.34, SD = 1.44) had greater behavioral intention compared to those who viewed the advertisement with a distal temporal frame [M = 4.63, SD = 1.52; F(1,191) = 6.51, p = .001, η2 = .03]. Also, participants who viewed the hubristic pride appeal PSA with a distal temporal message frame (M = 5.68, SD = 1.21) had a greater behavioral intention compared to those who viewed the advertisement with a proximal temporal message frame [M = 4.94, SD = 1.34; F(1,191) = 6.92, p = .001, η2 = .04}. In sum, these findings replicate the findings in Study 1 (See Figure 3).
Finally, PROCESS Model 8 was conducted to test H3, which predicted that fluency mediates the interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message frame. The type of pride appeal was set as a predictor variable, with authentic pride as a comparison condition, and temporal framing moderating both the path from pride appeal to conceptual fluency (the mediator) and the path from pride appeal to behavioral intention. Results show temporal framing moderated the effect of pride appeal on processing fluency (b = 1.22, SE = .36; t = 3.40, p < .001; R2-change = .06) and behavioral intention (b = 1.25, SE = .41; t = 3.08, p <.01; R2-change = .05). Enhanced processing fluency was also significantly associated with greater behavioral intention (b = .17, SE = .08, t = 2.12, p < .05). The index of moderated mediation (index = .20, SE = .12, 95 percent CI from .02 to .48) was significant. The conditional indirect effect results show that both types of temporal framing were significant (95 percent CI from −.29 to .00; 95 percent CI from .01 to .26), indicating temporal framing significantly moderates the effect of pride appeal on behavioral intention via the indirect effect of processing fluency. This was the case for both the match between an authentic pride appeal and a proximal temporal frame as well as the match between a hubristic pride appeal and a distal temporal frame; H3 was supported.
Study 2 Discussion
The purpose of Study 2 was to demonstrate the external validity of Study 1 findings by examining the interaction between pride appeals and temporal message framing in the context of a single PSA that features both the emotional appeal and temporal message frame. Consistent with Study 1, Study 2 results demonstrate the compatibility effects between pride appeal type and temporal message frame and identify processing fluency as a mediator to these compatibility effects. These findings have theoretical and managerial implications, which are described below.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
This research examined and revealed compatibility effects between authentic and hubristic pride appeals and temporal message framing. Findings from two experiments demonstrated compatibility effects for an authentic pride appeal paired with a proximal temporal frame message and a hubristic pride appeal paired with a distal temporal message frame. Study 1 showed that participants primed with an authentic pride appeal had greater purchase intention and intention to spread positive word of mouth when viewing an advertisement for a green product with a proximal temporal message frame (compared to a distal temporal frame). Additionally, individuals primed with a hubristic pride appeal had a greater intention to spread positive word of mouth when viewing distal framing. But although the means were in the predicted direction, the interaction for a hubristic pride appeal and distal temporal message frame on purchase intention was not significant. Although the manipulation check for hubristic pride was significant, the mean (2.49) suggests that participants in the hubristic pride condition may have been processing information more proximally, which could explain the lack of support for H2a. Further, prior research suggests that intention to purchase green products may be influenced by other factors, such as individual characteristics and social factors (Zhuang, Luo, and Riaz, 2021). Previous research showed that a match between a high construal level and a gain frame did not result in greater purchase intention, even though the match between the two significantly engendered a more favorable attitude toward both the advertisement and brand (Chang, Zhang, and Xie, 2015).
Study 2 examined the interaction between pride appeal type and temporal message frame in the context of a PSA promoting green behavior and further demonstrates the compatibility effects between an authentic (hubristic) pride appeal and a proximal (distal) temporal frame. Further, this study examined how processing fluency moderates these relationships. Results were consistent with Study 1 and demonstrate processing fluency to be an underlying psychological mechanism to the compatibility effects of pride appeal type of temporal message frame.
Combined, these findings contribute to the literature on self-conscious emotions, and specifically, the two facets of pride in terms of how individuals who experience these emotions process information.
Theoretical Contributions
The results from these studies provide theoretical contributions in the domains of the self-conscious emotion of pride, temporal framing, and compatibility effects, which are discussed below. The findings from this work contribute to research that demonstrates the existence of two distinct types of pride. Additionally, this work contributes to the literature by demonstrating that these two distinct types of pride can be effectively used as emotional appeals in advertising—both for a product (in traditional advertising) and in a PSA. Very little research has examined the two types of pride appeals in advertising. One recent study identified a compatibility effect between authentic (hubristic) pride appeals and promotion-focus (prevention-focus) messages due to the relationship between pride, the two types of goal regulation, and interpersonal functioning (Hong et al., 2021). The current authors’ work builds upon these findings by exploring the relationship between temporal distance and the two types of pride appeals. Their two studies focus on cognitive processing or construal to build the foundation for the current authors’ predictions and findings of authentic and hubristic pride appeals and temporal message framing. Further, findings from this work demonstrate that processing fluency mediates the interplay between pride appeal type and temporal message framing. Combined, these findings contribute to the literature on self-conscious emotions, and specifically, the two facets of pride in terms of how individuals who experience these emotions process information. These findings also contribute to the literature on compatibility effects by demonstrating the relationship between authentic and hubristic pride and temporal message framing.
These findings also contribute to the growing literature stream on temporal framing. Prior research examining temporal message framing has demonstrated that a proximal temporal frame is generally more effective in health advertising (compared to a distal temporal message frame) due to reduced perceived psychological distance and risk, which results in individuals’ increased intention to engage in advocated health behaviors (Chandran and Menon, 2004). But distal temporal framing does not necessarily hinder persuasion, as a high construal level does not indicate a lower quality of elaboration (Liberman, Trope, and Wakslak, 2007), and reducing psychological distance does not always equal positive persuasion outcomes (Brugger, Morton, and Dessai, 2016; Liberman et al., 2007). Findings from the current study build on other studies that demonstrate distal temporal message framing can also be effective, depending on other message elements featured in an advertisement. Prior researchers investigated the interaction between emotional appeals (guilt versus shame) and temporal frames (proximal versus distal), for example, and found a compatibility effect for a guilt (shame) appeal and a proximal (distal) temporal message frame (Pounders et al., 2019). Finally, the current work contributes to the literature on temporal framing and persuasion by examining temporal framing in the context of both a product as well as a social cause (green behavior). Most of the work that has investigated temporal message framing has done so in the context of risk and health communication (Huang and Xu, 2022). Finally, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine how temporal framing can interact with positive emotional appeals.
Practical Implications
The current research also offers managerial implications for advertisers and social marketers. Advertisements and PSAs that utilize pride appeals focusing on specific behaviors, for instance, can induce authentic pride, whereas advertisements and PSAs focusing on the global self-image or personality can engender hubristic pride. Advertisements and PSAs that feature authentic pride appeals should be paired with proximal temporal message framing to maximize effectiveness, while advertisements and PSAs that feature hubristic pride appeals should be paired with distal message framing to maximize effectiveness. Many advertisements, both for commercial and social/societal causes, emphasize timing, whether it be how fast a product works (e.g., anti-aging, weight-loss, cleaning product) or how long a product can last (e.g., warranties, batteries, insurance policies). Many PSAs for health issues, environmental messaging, and charitable donations emphasize a risk or consequence, and the compatibility effects of authentic (hubristic) pride appeal and proximal (distal) temporal message frame may be particularly effective in these contexts. A PSA featuring an authentic pride appeal (exercising for heart health) should convey risk about heart disease using a proximal temporal message frame (every day), for example, while a PSA featuring a hubristic pride appeal (be a healthy person) should convey risk using a distal temporal message frame.
Given that incidental emotions can influence the integral emotions in advertisements, practitioners should consider appropriate situations for the advertisement placements. Specifically, they can place proximally framed advertisements when consumers feel authentic pride, and place distally framed advertisements when consumers feel hubristic pride.
Limitations and Future Research
Although the current research provides theoretical and practical implications, it has several limitations. First, although the manipulation of the distal temporal frame was significant in Study 1, the means suggest that participants in the distal condition may have construed information more proximally, while in Study 2, although statistically significant, the means suggest that participants in the proximal condition may have construed information more distally. In other words, in both studies, the pattern of means for the temporal frame manipulation check showed a tendency to be above or below the neutral point. Interestingly, this pattern of results with the reported means of temporal message framing is consistent with prior work on temporal message framing (e.g., Chandran and Menon, 2004; Pounders et al., 2019; and Shen and Kim, 2022). This consistent pattern of findings suggests that there is a need to further understand the nuance of temporal framing manipulation in persuasion, and future research should continue to examine the intricacies and temporal framing for prosocial advertising and advertising for traditional products and services. Many studies, including the current research, have used temporal framing item scales from Chandran and Menon (2004). Future research could develop a new measure of temporal framing, as well as identify additional ways to manipulate temporal framing within an advertisement. Further, future research should seek to understand additional moderators to temporal message framing, and if message elements featured with temporal framing impact perceptions of the temporal message frame manipulation. Future research also should continue to investigate potential underlying psychological mechanisms that explain the dynamics of temporal message framing in advertising.
This work only investigated advertisements promoting green consumption and green products. Consumers can develop attitudes toward the advertisements with emotional appeals based on the product type (hedonic versus utilitarian) and involvement level (low versus high) (Geuens, Pelsmacker, and Faseur, 2011). Future studies should explore the interaction effects between pride appeals and temporal message frames in different contexts or product categories.
Finally, the majority of the sample for both studies was female. Although including gender as a covariate for both studies did not have an impact, it is a limitation of this work. Although this work examined fluency as a mediator, future work should continue to identify other psychological factors that may explain compatibility effects.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Both authors contributed equally to this paper and share first authorship
Chung In (Hazel) Yun is a doctoral candidate at the Stan Richards School of Advertising and Public Relations at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research focuses on consumer behavior in the domain of persuasion and sustainability. Specifically, she examines how various message elements, including emotional appeals, interact with each other to positively influence consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions.
Kathrynn Pounders is an associate professor at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research focuses on consumer behavior in the domains of persuasion and consumer well-being. She examines how emotions, motivation, and identity interact to influence consumer attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Her research investigates information processing as well as social and psychological factors to understand consumer response to media, marketing, and messaging. She also explores gender, identity, and branding. Pounders is an associate editor for the Journal of Advertising Research and Journal of Business Research. Her work is published in the Journal of Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Advertising, and International Journal of Advertising.
APPENDIX A Study 1 Stimuli
APPENDIX B Study 2 Stimuli
- Received March 20, 2023.
- Received (in revised form) October 18, 2023.
- Accepted October 25, 2023.
- Copyright © 2024 ARF. All rights reserved.
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